Learning Resources
This list of recommended reading has been colour-coded as follows:
Part 1 - Core Concepts
Part 2 - Image Brightness / Contrast
Part 3 - Radiographic Technique
Part 4 - Paleoradiography in Research
Literature has been categorised into tasks and optional reading. Where possible, direct weblinks have been provided.
Books and relevant websites:
For those who want to learn about radiation physics and radiography -
Ball and Moore's Essential Physics for Radiographers
By John Ball, Adrian D Moore & Steve Turner
4th Edition. 2012. Blackwell Publishing
Radiologic Science for Technologists
By Stewart Bushong
12th Edition. 2021. Mosby
These books cover the topic of paleoimaging in general -
Advances in paleoimaging: Applications for paleoanthropology, bioarchaeology, forensics, and cultural artifacts
By Gerald J. Conlogue, Ronald G. Beckett
2020 CRC Press
Case studies for advances in paleoimaging and other non-clinical applications
By Ronald G. Beckett, Gerald J. Conlogue, Andrew Nelson
2020 CRC Press
Paleoimaging: Field Applications for cultural remains and artifacts
By Ronald G. Beckett & Gerald J. Conlogue
2010 CRC Press
PaleoRadiology: Imaging mummies and fossils
By Rethy K. Chhem & Don R. Brothwell
2008 Springer
Part 1 - Core Concepts:
Task 1
Read the short chapter 'The Basics of X-rays' by Guillermo Avendaño Cervantes in his book titled Technical Fundamentals of Radiology and CT (2016).
The chapter can be found using this link. The whole chapter is shown on the website, alternatively it can be downloaded as a PDF for offline reading.
This chapter ties together many of the concepts of physics and medical imaging equipment described above, with a little more detail on some aspects.
Estimated reading time: 11 minutes
Task 2
Read the short article 'The earliest documented applications of X-rays to examination of mummified remains and archaeological materials' by Fiori and Nunzi (1995).
The article can be found using this link. I find it easier to download the PDF version to read the article.
This article illustrates the emergence of x-rays and how they were quickly adopted within archaeology.
The full reference is:
Fiori, M. G. and Nunzi, M. G. (1995) 'The earliest documented applications of X-rays to examination of mummified remains and archaeological materials', Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 88(2), pp. 67-69.
Estimated reading time: 10 minutes
Optional reading:
'History of paleoradiology: early published literature, 1896-1921'
By Thomas Böni, Frank J Rühli, Rethy K Chhem.
Canadian Association of Radiologists Journal
(2004) Volume 55 (part 4). Pages 203-210.
This article beautifully conveys the earliest applications of x-rays within archaeology and items of cultural significance. There's a selection of X-rays alongside descriptions of how they were used. Unfortunately, this article is not free, you will need to pay for access. However, your local library or university may have access and will be able to source the article for a small fee.
Optional reading:
'Evaluation on use of industrial radiography for weld joints inspection in Tanzania'
By Christopher T. Mgonja.
International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology
(2017) Volume 8 (issue 5). Article ID IJMET_08_05_008.
For an example of industrial radiography you can look at this article on weld joints. It is open access, meaning you can access it for free. It is 10 pages long.
Optional reading:
'Crack detection using image processing techniques for radiographic inspection of aircraft wing spar'
By B Stephen Wong, Xin Wang, Chen Ming Koh, Chen Guan Tui, Ching Seong Tan and Kian Xu.
Insight
(2011) Volume 53 (issue 10). Pages 552-556.
Another example of industrial radiography. This one concerns the assessment of aeroplane wings. The article can be accessed using this link which takes you to ResearchGate. You'll be able to see some of the X-rays on the webpage or download the full article. Free to access, it is 5 pages long.
Optional reading:
'Complete primate skeleton from the middle eocene of Messel in Germany: Morphology and paleobiology'
By Jens L. Franzen, Philip D. Gingerich, Jörg Habersetzer, Jørn H. Hurum, Wighart von Koenigswald, B. Holly Smith.
PLoS ONE
(2009) Volume 4 (issue 5). e5723.
An example of radiography being used with fossilised remains. These investigators used X-rays to image the fossilised bones of a prehistoric primate. The article is open access and can be found using this link. There have been some amendments to the original article but these are superficial. The article is 27 pages long but a number of these are large pictures. I recommend having a quick flick through to see the amazing research that has been done.
Optional reading:
'Radiation safety and protection'
By Nicholas Frane and Adam Bitterman.
StatPearls
(2022)
This chapter is open access and can be found using this link. It is an overview of radiation safety and protection in the context of the hospital setting.
Optional reading:
'Ancient Corpses as Curiosities: Mummymania in the Age of Early Travel'
By Tessa T. Baber.
Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections
(2016) Volume 8. Pages 60-93.
Interested in ancient mummies? This excellent article covers the history of mummy mania and how the Victorians (amongst others) saw them as souvenirs to take home. You can access the article for free via ResearchGate here. It's quite long but with lots of lovely details.
Optional reading:
'Effect of X-ray irradiation on ancient DNA in sub-fossil bones – Guidelines for safe X-ray imaging'
By Alexander Immel et al.
Scientific Reports
(2016) Volume 6. Article 32969.
Accessed for free here.
Ionising radiation may damage living tissue at a genetic level. The increased use of X-rays in paleo-research has raised the question whether we are damaging ancient DNA that could be used for further analysis. This interesting article tests the theory by applying a large amount of radiation upon an ancient bone and measuring aDNA before and after. The authors conclude that CT, micro CT and radiography are below the threshold for damage to aDNA.
Optional reading:
'Paleopathology and osteobiography of the people of Peñuelas, Chile's semiarid north'
By Maria Araya Rosado & Jessica Vernacchio-Wilson
Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz
(2006) Volume 101 (supplement 1). Pages 85-95.
An example of radiography being used to identify paleopathologies. This article is available here, it is open access and presents the osteology and paleopathologies of a Chilean population from the 14th century. The authors provide photographs and radiographs of skeletal specimens. It is 11 pages long.
Optional reading:
'Medieval injuries: Skeletal trauma as an indicator of past living conditions and hazard risk in Cambridge, England'
By Jenna M. Dittmar, Piers D. Mitchell, Craig Cessford, Sarah A. Inskip & John E. Robb
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
(2020) Volume 175 (issue 3). Pages 626-645.
Traumatic injuries to the skeleton are often seen with the naked eye, however radiography may be useful to demonstrate the extent or age of the injury. This freely available article provides some example of medieval trauma along with some radiographs.
Optional reading:
'Frequency of appearance of transverse (Harris) lines reflects living conditions of the Pleistocene bear—Ursus ingressus—(Sudety Mts., Poland)'
By Dariusz Nowakowski
PLoS ONE
(2018) Volume 13(4). e0196342.
An example of Harris line investigation using radiography. The author examines ancient bear remains to suggest biological stress. A free-to-access article, 9 pages
Optional reading:
'Dental radiographic indicators, a key to age estimation'
By A S Panchbhai
Dentomaxillofacial radiology
(2015) Volume 40. Pages 199-212.
A review of aging using radiography of dental anatomy. This free-to-access article is comprehensive, with plenty of diagrams. It is 14 pages long.
Optional reading:
'Erosive and Mechanical Tooth Wear in Viking Age Icelanders'
By Svend Richter and Sigfus Thor Eliasson
Dental Journal
(2017) Volume 5(3). Page 24.
This interesting Open Access article provides an example of historic Icelandic dental status. The authors do not use radiography, but there are excellent diagrams and photographs. The article is 12 page long.
Optional reading:
'X-ray tomography of a soil block: a useful tool for the restoration of archaeological finds'
By Alessandro Re, Jacopo Corsi, Marco Demmelbauer, Margherita Martini, Giorgia Mila & Chiara Ricci
Heritage Science
(2015) Volume 3 (issue 4).
The authors of this paper present the use of computed tomography for a soil block containing archaeological metalwork. Initially though, they use radiography to identify and localise the metalwork. The article is Open Access and 7 pages long.
Optional reading:
'Insights into manufacturing techniques of archaeological pottery: Industrial X-ray computed tomography as a tool in the examination of cultural material'
By Stephan Karl, Daniel Jungblut, Hubert Mara, Gabriel Wittum and Susanne Krömker
In M. Martinón-Torres (Ed.), Craft and science: International perspectives on archaeological ceramics. Doha, Qatar: Bloomsbury Qatar Foundation. http://dx.doi.org/10.5339/uclq.2014.cas.ch27
This article looks at Corinthian pottery using CT scans. Very interesting, with an overview of how industrial units may provide future research possibilities in archaeology. Use this link to view the PDF. It is 9 pages long.
Optional reading:
'Re-Examination of Predynastic Pottery from Minshat Abu Omar (Nile Delta, Egypt)'
By Agnieszka Mączyńska
Studies in Ancient Art and Civilization
(2021) Volume 25. Pages 55-72.
This article looks at Egyptian Predynastic pottery production using radiography. Some excellent photographs and radiographs at the end of the article. It is Open Access, use this link to view the PDF. It is 18 pages long.
Part 2 - Image Brightness / Contrast
Task 1
Read the journal article 'Artic paleoradiology: Portable radiographic examination of two frozen sailors from the Franklin Expedition (1845-1848)'.
By Derek Notman, Lawrence Anderson, Own Beattie and Roger Amy (1987).
American Journal of Roentgenology
(1987) Volume 149, Pages 347-350.
The article can be found using this link. The article is shown on the website, alternatively it can be downloaded as a PDF for offline reading.
A wonderful article demonstrating the use of radiography in the field. The authors conducted radiographic imaging for two members of the Franklin Expedition at the site of their frozen graves. Take note of the difference in 'whiteness' between the chest x-rays before and after they have been temporarily thawed.
Estimated reading time: 14 minutes
Optional reading:
'Quantitative computerized tomography for the diagnosis of osteopenia in prehistoric skeletal remains'
By E. Gonzalez-Reimers, J. Velasco-Va´zquez, M. Arnay-de-la-Rosa & M. Machado-Calvo
Journal of Archaeological Science
(2007) Volume 34. Pages 554-561.
Accessed here.
Quantitative computed tomography provides another method of estimation of bone mineral density. Unlike photodensitometry and duel-energy energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) QCT provides a volume measurement (cubic centimetre). This article provides an example of QCT being used in archaeology.
Optional reading:
'Volumetric BMD values of archaeological human bone remains with pQCT and DEXA'
By Jorge Alejandro Suby, Ricardo Aníbal Guichón, Gustavo Cointry, José Luis Ferretti.
Journal of Taphonomy
(2007) Volume 7, Issue 1. Pages 29-45.
Accessed here via Research Gate.
Another estimation of bone mineral density with archaeological remains. This one is for a prehistoric hunter-gatherer in southern Patagonia. The authors use DEXA and QCT and compare the results.
Optional reading:
'Diagenesis of archaeological bone and tooth'
By Kendall, C. et al
Palaeogeography, palaeoclimatology, palaeoecology
(2018) Volume 491. Pages 21-37.
This article provides an extensive account of bone diagenesis - i.e. the changes to bone from physical, chemical and biological factors. This link takes you to the full article (University of York). It is 42 pages long! But there's some great references at the end, very useful for any essays on the topic.
Optional reading:
'Radiographic techniques, contrast, and noise in x-ray imaging'.
By Walter Huda and R. Brad Abrahams (2015).
American Journal of Roentgenology
(2015) Volume 204, Pages W126-W131.
The article can be found using this link. The article is shown on the website, alternatively it can be downloaded as a PDF for offline reading.
This article explains many of the technical concepts I've covered within Part 2 but with greater detail. It also covers aspects concerning image quality which, although fixated upon medical applications, are equally important to paleoradiography.
(Estimated reading time: 25 minutes)
Optional reading:
'X-Ray Imaging Physics for Nuclear Medicine Technologists. Part 1: Basic Principles of X-Ray Production'
By J. Anthony Seibert
Journal of Nuclear Medicine Technology
(2004) Volume 32. Pages 139–147.
Access the article for free using this link.
A great article if you want a summary of x-ray physics. It covers everything from electromagnetic radiation, X-ray tubes and production, to the problems encountered with X-ray tubes. I particularly like the extensive glossary at the end. Yes, this article caters for those in Nuclear Medicine (one of my specialisms) but all of the terminology is applicable to radiography and paleoradiography.
(From start to finish it would take about 45 minutes to read)
Optional reading:
'Analog and digital systems of imaging in roentgenodiagnostics'
By Dominika Oborska-Kumaszyńska and Sylwia Wiśniewska-Kubka
Polish Journal of Radiology
(2010) Volume 75 (part 2), Pages 73–81.
Access the article for free using this link.
If you have an interest in the different image acquisition systems used within radiography this article explains analogue film, computed radiography and digital radiography. The article is comprehensive, covering construction of the different imaging mediums and the quality assurance tests. For someone who may be new to radiography I'd just stick to the initial descriptions of each method of image acquisition.
(From start to finish it would take about 40 minutes to read if you are a slow reader)
Part 3 - Radiographic Technique
Task 1
Read the journal article 'Testing “Saintly” Authenticity: Investigations on Two Catacomb Saints'.
By Amelie Alterauge, Thomas Becker, Brigitta Berndt, Christian Jackowski, and Sandra Lösch (2016).
RadioGraphics
(2016) Volume 36, Pages 573-579.
The article is available from Research Gate using this link.
A very interesting article about the radiographic imaging of skeletal remains for two saints in Switzerland. Both were imaged in situ, without the ability to move them to accommodate the image detector. Take note of the Radiographic Imaging section on page 574, which describes the radiographic technique.
Estimated reading time: 20 minutes
Optional reading:
'Employing radiography (X-rays) to localize lesions in human skeletal remains from past populations to allow accurate biopsy, using examples of cancer metastases'
By Piers D. Mitchell and Jenna M. Dittmar
International Journal of Osteoarchaeology
(2022) Volume 32 (issue 4), Pages 916-922.
An Open Access article which explores two techniques for localising lytic (bone) lesions for biopsy using archaeological remains. This short report is 7 pages long and provides an interesting practical discussion of bone biopsies using radiography.
Optional reading:
'Automated radiogrammetry is a feasible method for measuring bone quality and bone maturation in severely disabled children'
By Sandra Mergler et al.
Pediatric Radiology
(2016) Volume 46, Pages 1017–1022.
Access the article for free using this link.
An example of radiogrammetry being using in current hospital environment. The authors of this article validate an automated system where the X-rays of children's hands are analysed for bone loss.
Optional reading:
'Digital X-ray radiogrammetry of hand or wrist radiographs can predict hip fracture risk—a study in 5,420 women and 2,837 men'
By M. L. Wilczek, J. Kälvesten, J. Algulin, O. Beiki and T. B. Brismar.
European Radiology
(2013) Volume 23 (issue 5), Pages 1383–1391.
Access the article for free using this link.
Another example of radiogrammetry in the clinical context. The authors of this study demonstrate the value of cortical thickness as an indicator of bone loss, suggesting that archaeological studies may also benefit.
Optional reading:
'Quantifying cortical bone in fragmentary archeological second metacarpals'
By Rebecca J. Gilmour, Megan B. Brickley, Menno Hoogland, Erik Jurriaans, Simon Mays and Tracy L. Prowse
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
(2021) Volume 174 (issue 4), Pages 812–821.
You will need library access to view this article, click on this link to view the journal webpage.
An archaeological example of radiogrammetry being used in research. The authors used digital radiography to measure the cortical thickness of fragmented remains.
Optional reading:
'Method for measuring quantity of bone'
By A.N. Exton-Smith, P.H. Millard, P.R. Payne Erica and F. Wheeler
The Lancet
(1969) Volume 294 (issue 7631), Pages 1153–1154.
You will need library access to view this article, click on this link to view the article webpage.
One of the early publications regarding measurement of cortical thickness using radiogrammetry, highly cited within academic literature. Technology has since changed towards digital radiography, but the concept is still the same.
Optional reading:
'Radiogrammetry and radiographic absorptiometry'
By Judith Adams
Radiologic Clinics of North America
(2010) Volume 48 (issue 3), Pages 531-540.
You will need library access to view this article, click on this link to view the article webpage.
An overview of both radiogrammetry and photodensitometry (also known as radiographic absorptiometry). This article gives a historical overview and links to digital radiography methods.
Part 4 - Paleoradiography in Research
Optional reading:
'The digitisation of X‐radiographs for dissemination, archiving and improved image interpretation'
By Sonia O'Connor and Jason Maher
The Conservator
(2010) Volume 25 (issue 1), Pages 3–15.
You will need institutional access to read this article, or pay the fee to the publisher.
The journal article can be found here.
The authors explore the conversion of printed or developed X-ray film into digital versions within the heritage sector. There are benefits for both image storage and viewing.
Optional reading:
'The radiologist in the crypt: Burden of disease in the past and Its modern relevance'
By Katherinevan Schaik, Ronald Eisenberg, Jelena Bekvalac and Frank Rühli.
Academic Radiology
(2017) Volume 24 (issue 10), Pages 1305–1311.
You will need institutional access to read this article, or pay the fee to the publisher.
The journal article can be found here.
An account of paleoradiography within a London church crypt. The authors sought to find out the presence or absence of skeletal lesions from the 18th-19th century remains.
Optional reading:
'Harris lines observed in human skeletons of Joseon Dynasty, Korea'
By Jaewon Beom, Eun Jin Woo, In Sun Lee, Myeung Ju Kim, Yi-Suk Kim, Chang Seok Oh, Sang-Seob Lee, Sang Beom Lim, and Dong Hoon Shin.
Anatomy and Cell Biology
(2014) Volume 47 (issue 1), Pages 66–72.
Access the article for free using this link.
An example of Harris line detection within a medieval Korean population, as a sign of biological stress. (From start to finish it would take about 22 minutes to read)
Optional reading:
'The relationship between dental wear and age at death in British archaeological human skeletal remains: A re-evaluation of the ‘Brothwell chart’'
By S. Mays, S. Zakrzewski and S. Field
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
(2022) Volume 46, 103707
Access the article for free using this link.
The authors re-evaluate the dental wear scoring chart first proposed by Don Brothwell in 1963. They analysed 870 individuals ranging from the Neolithic to Post-Medieval Britain to update the scoring chart and therefore assist estimations of age. This article is 14 pages long.
Optional reading:
'Identification and valuation of archaeological artefacts: developments using digital X-radiography'
By Chris Caple and Vicky Garlick.
Journal of the Institute of Conservation
(2018) Volume 41 (issue 2), Pages 128–141.
Access the article for free using this link.
At present, this is the best overview of paleoradiography for metalwork finds in archaeology. From start to finish it would take about 50 minutes to read.
Optional reading:
'A proposal to describe active corrosion of archaeological iron objects'
By Marie-Anne Loeper-Attia.
In book: Corrosion of Metallic Heritage Artefacts (pp.190-202)
Access the article for free on Research Gate using this link.
This chapter provides an example of radiography being used with corroded metalwork. It is 8 pages long.
Optional reading:
'A Note on the Application of X-Radiography in the Conservation and Study of Archaeological Ironwork'
By B. G. Scott.
Irish Archaeological Research Forum
(1976) Volume 3 (number 1). Pages 1-8.
This article is available through JSTOR with institutional access. Use this link to take you to the appropriate page.
A little gem of an article. Almost lost to the passage of time, I found this article whilst surfing the net. The author reports on their experimental use of an X-ray unit with metalwork with some case studies.
Optional reading:
'Photodensitometry: a useful method for studying bone mineral density in the skeletal remains of children'
By Bernadette Manifold
Bulletin of the International Association for Paleodontology
(2014) Volume 8 (issue 1), Pages 187–194.
Access the article for free using this link.
An example of photodensitometry being used in archaeological research.
(From start to finish it would take about 15 minutes to read)
Optional reading:
'Age-related bone loss and osteoporosis in archaeological bone: A study of two London collections, Redcross Way and Farringdon Street.'
By Megan Bronwyn Brickley
A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of London
Access the thesis for free using this link. A substantial body of work exploring the research value and meaning of bone density in archaeological human remains. It is 363 pages long!
Optional reading:
'A procedural guide to metacarpal radiogrammetry in archaeology'
By R. Ives M. B. Brickley
International Journal of Osteoarchaeology
(2004) Volume 14 (issue 1), Pages 7–17.
You will need institutional access to read this article, or pay the fee to the publisher.
The journal article can be found here.
A guide for conducting radiogrammetry. Does what it says on the tin! From start to finish it would take about 30 minutes to read.
Optional reading:
'Quantifying cortical bone in fragmentary archaeological second metacarpals'
By Rebecca J. Gilmour, Megan B. Brickley, Menno Hoogland, Erik Jurriaans, Simon Mays and Tracy L. Prowse
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
(2021) Volume 174 (issue 4), Pages 812–821.
You will need library access to view this article.
Click on this link to view the journal webpage.
An archaeological example of radiogrammetry being used in research. The authors used digital radiography to measure the cortical thickness of fragmented remains.
Optional reading:
'An investigation of cortical bone loss and fracture patterns in the Neolithic community of Çatalhöyük, Turkey using metacarpal radiogrammetry'
By Bonnie Glencross & Sabrina C. Agarwal
Journal of Archaeological Science
(2011) Volume 38 (issue 3), Pages 513–521.
You will need library access to view this article.
Click on this link to view the article page.
A study on bone loss which used radiogrammetry on metacarpal bones.
Optional reading:
'Biological profiling of Richard III using post-mortem computed tomography scanning'
By A. Brough, B. Morgan, C. Robinson, J. Appleby, R. Buckley & G. Rutty.
Journal of Forensic Radiology and Imaging
(2016) Volume 5, Pages 31–37.
You will need library access to view this article, click on this link to view the article page.
The investigators used the CT data of King Richard II's head to reconstruct a biological profile and identify trauma not seen by the naked eye.
Optional reading:
'Taking stock: A systematic review of archaeological evidence of cancers in human and early hominin remains'
By Kathryn Hunt, Charlotte Roberts and Casey Kirkpatrick.
International Journal of Paleopathology
(2018) Volume 21, Pages 12–26.
You will need institutional access to read this article, or pay the fee to the publisher.
The journal article can be found here.
An example of 'the bigger picture' within archaeological research. The authors collated all known academic evidence of cancer within archaeological contexts. Some of which demonstrate the use of paleoradiography.
From start to finish it would take about 50 minutes to read, although if are just looking for examples in paleoradiography I would look at the reference list.
Optional reading:
'A critical look at mummy CT scanning'
By Samantha Cox.
The Anatomical Record
(2015) Volume 298 (issue 6), Pages 1099–1110.
Access the article for free using this link.
An informative look at computed tomography scanning in mummy research. Samantha Cox is critical of the early 'academic' efforts when researchers performed scans purely to have a look rather than provide answers to specific questions. The article also provides her own case study of an Egyptian mummy.
(From start to finish it would take about 40 minutes to read)
Optional reading:
'Computed tomography head and facial bones review of a 2700 year old Egyptian mummy'
By Paul Lockwood, James Elliott, Andrew Nelson , Samantha Harris
BJR Case Reports
(2020) Volume 6 (issue 2), 20190076.
Access the article for free using this link.
My colleagues and I were lucky enough to obtain, examine and report upon the CT scan of Ta Kush from Maidstone Museum (Kent, United Kingdom). It is 5 pages long.
Optional reading:
'Computed tomography study of the mummy of King Seqenenre Taa II: New insights into his violent death'
By Sahar N. Saleem and Zahi Hawass
Frontiers in Medicine
(2021) Volume 8, 637527.
Access the article for free using this link.
This CT study examined another ancient Egyptian mummy to learn the probable cause of death. A fascinating example of modern medical imaging being used to learn from the past. It is 10 pages long.
Optional reading:
'Unlocking history through automated virtual unfolding of sealed documents imaged by X-ray microtomography'
By Jana Dambrogi et al.
Nature Communications
(2021) Volume 12, 1184.
Access the article for free using this link.
The authors of this paper validate the use of micro CT as a method of reading an unopened letter from Renaissance Europe. Through 3D scanning and clever technologies they are able to digitally unwrap the letter and read its contents. It is 10 pages long.
Optional reading:
'Micro-CT assessment of dental mineralization defects indicative of vitamin D deficiency in two 17th–19th century Dutch communities'
By Barbara Veselka, Megan B Brickley, Lori D'Ortenzio, Bonnie Kahlon, Menno L P Hoogland, Andrea L Waters-Rist.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
(2019) Volume 169, 122-131.
Access the article for free using this link.
If you are interested in bioarchaeology and osteoarchaeology, specifically dental remains, this is a good example of micro CT being used as a research tool. The authors investigate the deposition of dental anatomy as indicators for vitamin D deficiency. It is 10 pages long.
Optional reading:
'Investigating the origin and authenticity of Victoria Cross medals using X-ray fluorescence spectrometry'
By Andrew Marriott & James G. D. Prendergast
Scientific Reports
(2020) Volume 10, 19953.
Access the article for free using this link.
The researchers of this article use X-ray fluorescence (XRF) to assess the composition of 100 Victoria Cross medals. Traditionally, all Victoria Cross medals are made from the same bronze guns captured from the Russians by the end of the Crimea War in 1856. Some doubt has been cast over the authenticity of this origin. This fascinating article provides an insight into XRF as a non-destructive method of investigation. It is 13 pages long.
Optional reading:
'Analysis of the Peiting woman using portable X-Ray fluorescence spectroscopy'
By Guinevere Granite & Andreas Bauerochse
Chronika
(2013) Volume 3, page 55-66.
Access the article for free from Research Gate using this link.
Another XRF article, this one explores the composition of a German bog body. An interesting case study. This article is 12 pages long.